Common sentence errors

Fragments

A sentence must have a subject and a verb and be a complete thought. When a dependent (subordinate) clause or a phrase is presented as a sentence, it is called a fragment. Fragments commonly occur:

With subordinate clauses

Examples of sentences with subordinate clauses
	Sentences
Typical error:	I sent Dalia to the store. Because we’d run out of milk.
Correct:	I sent Dalia to the store because we’d run out of milk.
Typical error:	People seek counselling. When they are experiencing difficulty coping with aspects of their lives.
Correct:	People seek counselling when they are experiencing difficulty coping with aspects of their lives.
Typical error:	Gudrun wanted to go to Café De Ville. Even though she’d already been three times that week.
Correct:	Gudrun wanted to go to Café De Ville even though she’d already been three times that week.
Typical error:	The city constructed ramps. So that people could access public buildings more easily.
Correct:	The city constructed ramps so that people could access public buildings more easily.

With prepositional phrases

Examples of sentences with prepositional phrases
	Sentences
Typical error:	It came as a great relief. To everyone.
Correct:	It came as a great relief to everyone.
Typical error:	Gordon hoped that Emma would abandon the idea of suing the company. For her own sake as much as for anybody else’s.
Correct:	Gordon hoped that Emma would abandon the idea of suing the company, for her own sake as much as for anybody else’s.
Typical error:	Most people wouldn’t do that job. Not for love nor money.
Correct:	Most people would not do that job for love or money.
Typical error:	They eventually found Abe in a rickety cabin. Within a wood on the other side of that ridge.
Correct:	They eventually found Abe in a rickety cabin within a wood on the other side of that ridge.

With verbal phrases

Examples of sentences with verbal phrases
	Sentences
Typical error:	She sat with the cellphone on her lap. Waiting for the familiar ring, wondering whether she would ever get beyond the agony of waiting.
Correct:	She sat with the cellphone on her lap, waiting for the familiar ring, wondering whether she would ever get beyond the agony of waiting.
Typical error:	For her sketching class, she borrowed ideas from Pre-Raphaelite paintings. Depicting summer garden scences.
Correct:	For her sketching class, she borrowed ideas from Pre-Raphaelite paintings depicting summer garden scences.
Typical error:	Having heard that there was a large and varied bird population there. Mavis planned to visit Bear Lake for the weekend.
Correct:	Having heard that there was a large and varied bird population there, Mavis planned to visit Bear Lake for the weekend.

With appositives

Examples of sentences with appositives
	Sentences
Typical error:	The book focuses on the one topic, dinosaurs. The most fascinating of ancient life forms.
Correct:	The book focuses on the one topic, dinosaurs, the most fascinating of ancient life forms.
Typical error:	The story takes place in Thompson. A small mining town in northern Manitoba.
Correct:	The story takes place in Thompson, a small mining town in northern Manitoba.
Typical error:	The annual Heritage Days festival is held at one of Edmonton’s largest parks, Hawrelak Park. A park on the south bank of the North Saskatchewan River.
Correct:	The annual Heritage Days festival is held at one of Edmonton’s largest parks, Hawrelak Park, a park on the south bank of the North Saskatchewan River.

Comma splice

Comma splice errors occur when independent clauses are not separated with a period, or joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction

With two independent clauses

A comma cannot be used to join two independent clauses.

Examples of comma splices with two independent clauses
	Independent Clauses
Typical error:	Inconvenient banking hours are now a thing of the past, most banks have online banking available 24/7.
Correct:	Inconvenient banking hours are now a thing of the past. Most banks have online banking available 24/7, weekdays, and some are open on Saturdays. (A period separates the two independent clauses.)
Typical error:	He fell into a deep meditative state, his pulse slowed down to practically nothing.
Correct:	He fell into a deep meditative state, and his pulse slowed down to practically nothing. (A comma and a coordinating conjunction join the two independent clauses.)
Typical error:	Only the front façades were ornate, the back and sides were unadorned red brick.
Correct:	Only the front façades were ornate; the back and sides were unadorned red brick. (A semicolon joins two independent clauses. See " The semicolon.")
Typical error:	Maria avoided the limelight, her privacy was of paramount importance to her.
Correct:	Maria avoided the limelight: her privacy was of paramount importance to her. (A colon can join the two independent clauses. See " The Colon.")
Typical error:	Cameron just had too much to do, that’s why she couldn’t make it to dinner.
Correct:	Because Cameron had too much to do, she couldn’t make it to dinner. (One clause is subordinated to the other. See " Subordinating Conjunctions, Subordination.")

With two independent clauses connected by a transitional phrase or a conjunctive adverb

Examples of comma splices with two independent clauses connected by a transitional phrase or a conjunctive adverb
Transitional Phrases	Conjunctive Adverbs
for example	accordingly	likewise
in conclusion	also	moreover
in fact	besides	nevertheless
in the meantime	consequently	otherwise
on the one hand	furthermore	then
on the other hand	however	therefore
	instead	thus

Examples of comma splices with sentences
	Sentences
Typical error:	The government made drastic cuts to education and social programs, however, it did not raise corporate taxes. (A comma cannot be used to join two independent clauses connected by a conjunctive adverb.)
Correct:	The government made drastic cuts to education and social programs; however, it did not raise corporate taxes.
Typical error:	Children must be taught the relationship between work and consumer goods, otherwise, they grow up expecting to have things without working for them.
Correct:	Children must be taught the relationship between work and consumer goods; otherwise, they grow up expecting to have things without working for them.
Typical error:	The superhighway of telecommunications will enable people involved in related disciplines from around the world to communicate more easily with each other, on the other hand the highway will further widen the information gap.
Correct:	The superhighway of telecommunications will enable people involved in related disciplines from around the world to communicate more easily with each other; on the other hand, the highway will further widen the information gap.
Typical error:	Phyllis took an active role in cultivating the creative talents of her children, for example, she would spend hours with them scouring urban and rural trails for scraps of things to use in collages.
Correct:	Phyllis took an active role in cultivating the creative talents of her children. For example, she would spend hours with them scouring urban and rural trails for scraps of things to use in collages.

Run-on or fused sentences

Appropriate punctuation is required to join two independent clauses. A run-on or fused sentence occurs when this punctuation is completely absent.

Examples of run-on or fused sentences
	Sentences
Typical error:	Henri bought the Christmas tree Louis put it up and decorated it.
Correct:	Henri bought the Christmas tree; Louis put it up and decorated it.
Typical error:	Elvira Madigan was her all-time favourite film it had beautiful people, beautiful scenery, and best of all, beautiful music.
Correct:	Elvira Madigan was her all-time favourite film. It had beautiful people, beautiful scenery, and best of all, beautiful music.
Typical error:	She listened to the squeaky crunch of her tread through the snow she recalled a sensation, a sense of being, she had enjoyed more than once as a child.
Correct:	She listened to the squeaky crunch of her tread through the snow, and she recalled a sensation, a sense of being, she had enjoyed more than once as a child.
Typical error:	The distribution of the earth’s metals follows geochemical laws one of the results is that most of the rarer metals are deep within the planet’s core.
Correct:	The distribution of the earth’s metals follows geochemical laws. One of the results is that most of the rarer metals are deep within the planet’s core.

Subject-verb agreement

The main verb of a sentence must agree with its subject.

Singular verbs

The following sentences require a singular verb:

With singular subjects

Examples of subject-verb agreement with singular subjects
	Sentences
Typical error:	The younger sibling are expected to take over the business when Mr. Panne retires.
Correct:	The younger sibling is expected to take over the business when Mr. Panne retires. (The subject is singular, so the verb is singular.)
Typical error:	Martha’s room-mate, Janae, have won a scholarship.
Correct:	Martha’s room-mate, Janae, has won a scholarship. (The subject "Janae" is singular, so it requires a singular verb.)
Typical error:	The cloak of many colours are mesmerizing.
Correct:	The cloak of many colours is mesmerizing.

With non-count nouns

Examples of subject-verb agreement with non-count nouns
	Sentences
Typical error:	The news this morning were more depressing than ever.
Correct:	The news this morning was more depressing than ever. (News is singular, so it requires a singular verb.)
Typical error:	The research on baby monkeys indicate that an infant’s affection for its mother arises from physical contact not from breast-feeding.
Correct:	The research on baby monkeys indicates that an infant’s affection for its mother arises from physical contact not from breast-feeding. (Research is singular, so it requires a singular verb.)
Typical error:	The furniture were placed around the room at odd angles to each other.
Correct:	The furniture was placed around the room at odd angles to each other.

With compound subjects when they refer to the same thing

Examples of subject-verb agreement with compound subjects referring to the same thing
	Sentences
Typical error:	His friend and lover of twenty years have finally proposed to him. (It sounds as if two people proposed to her.)
Correct:	His friend and lover of twenty years has finally proposed to him.
Typical error:	The rise and fall of the Roman Empire have captured many a historian’s imagination. ("Rise and fall" is an idiom encompassing the entire process of empire building.)
Correct:	The rise and fall of the Roman Empire has captured many a historian’s imagination.
Typical error:	My mentor and colleague have challenged the department to raise its standards. (It sounds as if two people issued the challenge.)
Correct:	My mentor and colleague has challenged the department to raise its standards.

With correlative conjunctions when referring to singular subjects ("either . . . or," "neither . . . nor," etc.)

Examples of subject-verb agreement with correlative conjunctions when referring to singular subjects
	Sentences
Typical error:	Neither John nor Fred have been invited to the wedding.
Correct:	Neither John nor Fred has been invited to the wedding.
Typical error:	Either the policy itself or its implementation are at fault.
Correct:	Either the policy itself or its implementation is at fault.
Typical error:	The play starts at eight, and neither Jaden nor Fenix are ready.
Correct:	The play starts at eight, and neither Jaden nor Fenix is ready.

With collective nouns when they are treated as a single unit

Examples of subject-verb agreement with collective nouns when they are treated as a single unit
Examples:	audience	committee	family	orchestra
	band	company	flock	public
	block	council	herd	staff
	class	crowd	jury	team

Examples of subject-verb agreement with collective nouns when they are treated as a single unit
	Sentences
Typical error:	A steering committee have been formed to manage the Heritage Project.
Correct:	A steering committee has been formed to manage the Heritage Project.
Typical error:	My family, like many others in the area, are involved in a number of community-enhancing activities. It takes its social responsibilities very seriously.
Correct:	My family, like many others in the area, is involved in a number of community-enhancing activities. It takes its social responsibilities very seriously. (The "it" in the second sentence makes it clear that family is being treated as a single unit.)
Typical error:	The flock of waxwings stretch from horizon to horizon.
Correct:	The flock of waxwings stretches from horizon to horizon.

With indefinite pronouns (everyone, anything, each, etc.)

Examples of subject-verb agreement with indefinite pronouns
	Sentences
Typical error:	Everything have their place.
Correct:	Everything has its place. ("Everything" is singular.)
Typical error:	Either of the books are worthy of serious consideration for the award.
Correct:	Either of the books is worthy of serious consideration for the award. ("Either" is singular.)
Typical error:	Every one of us have experienced loss at one time or another.
Correct:	Every one of us has experienced loss at one time or another. ("One" is singular.)

With "none" when it refers to a non-count noun, and when it means "not one"

Examples With none when it refers to a non-count noun, and when it means not one
	Sentences
Typical error:	None of the water look as though it is drinkable, especially the water served with one’s meals.
Correct:	None of the water looks as though it is drinkable, especially the water served with one’s meals.
Typical error:	None of the information they received were reliable.
Correct:	None of the information they received was reliable.
Typical error:	None of the grade twelve classes have a class average over 60%. (This is incorrect if the meaning is "not one.")
Correct:	None of the grade twelve classes has a class average over 60%. (Not one of the grade twelve classes has a class average over 60%.)

With "all," "any," "most," "more," and "some" when they refer to non-count nouns

Examples with all, any, most, more, and some when they refer to non-count nouns
	Sentences
Typical error:	The silver cutlery was in the cupboard that was broken into. All of them are missing.
Correct:	The silver cutlery was in the cupboard that was broken into. All of it is missing.
Typical error:	Some cash are also missing.
Correct:	Some cash is also missing.
Typical error:	We haven’t sufficient information to make a more comprehensive analysis. More are needed.
Correct:	We haven’t sufficient information to make a more comprehensive analysis. More is needed. ("More" refers to "information," which is non-count.)

With titles of plays, novels, businesses, etc.

Examples with titles of plays, novels, businesses, etc.
	Sentences
Typical error:	D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers are considered the most auto-biographical of all his works.
Correct:	D. H. Lawrence’s Sons and Lovers is considered the most auto-biographical of all his works.
Typical error:	Alfred & Freebone are reputed to have more millionaires as clients than any other law firm in the city.
Correct:	Alfred & Freebone is reputed to have more millionaires as clients than any other law firm in the city.
Typical error:	Stranger Things were a popular T.V. series.
Correct:	Stranger Things was a popular T.V. series.

With mass, quantity or number when such nouns are treated as single units

Examples with mass, quantity or number when such nouns are treated as single units
	Sentences
Typical error:	Six thousand dollars are a living allowance that would not keep a dog for a year, let alone a single adult.
Correct:	Six thousand dollars is a living allowance that would not keep a dog for a year, let alone a single adult.
Typical error:	Three quarters of what he earns are gobbled up by basic living expenses such as food and housing.
Correct:	Three quarters of what he earns is gobbled up by basic living expenses such as food and housing.
Typical error:	Five years are not as long a period as I used to think.
Correct:	Five years is not as long a period as I used to think. ("Five years" is treated as a single unit or period.)

Plural verbs

Plural verbs are required:

With plural subjects

Examples when plural verbs are required with plural subjects
	Sentences
Typical error:	Changes in the federal pension plan is expected to be made soon.
Correct:	Changes in the federal pension plan are expected to be made soon. ("Changes" is plural, so it requires a plural verb.)
Typical error:	Sheep has been the only livestock to survive in that scraggy, hilly terrain.
Correct:	Sheep have been the only livestock to survive in that scraggy, hilly terrain. (The subject "sheep" is plural, so it requires a plural verb.)

With compound subjects joined by and if the two items are not treated as a unit

Examples with compound subjects joined by and if the two items are not treated as a unit
	Sentences
Typical error:	Patricia and Elizabeth is expected to pass with honours.
Correct:	Patricia and Elizabeth are expected to pass with honours.
Typical error:	My mother and aunt has seldom disagreed over shared household duties.
Correct:	My mother and aunt have seldom disagreed over shared household duties.
Typical error:	Conscientiousness and reliability, more than ability, is what has earned her a management position.
Correct:	Conscientiousness and reliability, more than ability, are what have earned her a management position.

With collective nouns when the individual members are being referred to

Examples with collective nouns when the individual members are being referred to
	Sentences
Typical error:	The staff was angry when they heard they would have to accept a 5% cut in pay if they wanted to keep their jobs. ("They" and "their jobs" make it clear that the individual members of staff are being referred to.)
Correct:	The staff were angry when they heard they would have to accept a 5% cut in pay if they wanted to keep their jobs.
Typical error:	The herd has been enjoying their lazing in the sun.
Correct:	The herd have been enjoying their lazing in the sun. (The use of "their" instead of "its" makes it clear that the individual members of the herd are being referred to.)
Typical error:	The team has other things on their minds besides who will be the sponsors. ("Their minds" makes clear that the individual members of the team are being referred to.)
Correct:	The team have other things on their minds besides who will be the sponsors.

With the following indefinite pronouns

both few others several

Examples with the following indefinite pronouns
	Sentences
Typical error:	Declan and Kate have much in common; both likes country music and both enjoys the outdoors.
Correct:	Declan and Kate have much in common; both like country music and both enjoy the outdoors.
Typical error:	Many people are concerned about government cuts, but few seems bothered by the fishing rights dispute.
Correct:	Many people are concerned about government cuts, but few seem bothered by the fishing rights dispute.
Typical error:	The tools, of which we have several, comes in handy regularly.
Correct:	The tools, of which we have several, come in handy regularly.

With "all," "any," "most," "more," and "some" when they refer to a plural

Examples with all, any, most, more, and some when they refer to a plural
	Sentences
Typical error:	We order sandwiches for our meetings, and any left over is given to the office staff.
Correct:	We order sandwiches for our meetings, and any left over are given to the office staff. ("Any" refers to "sandwiches," a plural noun, so a plural verb is required.)
Typical error:	The books arrived today. Some more is on the way.
Correct:	The books arrived today. Some more are on the way. ("Some more" refers to "books," so a plural verb is required.)
Typical error:	UNICEF has collected two thousand blankets for the refugees. However, more is needed.
Correct:	UNICEF has collected two thousand blankets for the refugees. However, more are needed. ("More" refers to "blankets," a plural noun, so a plural verb is required.)

With "none" when it refers to a plural

Examples with none when it refers to a plural
	Sentences
Typical error:	None of the sheep has been shorn.
Correct:	None of the sheep have been shorn. ("None" refers to multiple sheep.)
Typical error:	Many people went through the re-habilitation program. None was tracked to determine whether the programme had any long-lasting benefits.
Correct:	Many people went through the re-habilitation program. None were tracked to determine whether the program had any long-lasting benefits. ("None" refers to people, so a plural verb is required.)

With mass, quantity, or number when they are treated as plurals

Examples with mass, quantity, or number when they are treated as plurals
	Sentences
Typical error:	Three quarters was placed in her open palm.
Correct:	Three quarters were placed in her open palm.
Typical error:	Forty per cent of the houses in the town was severely damaged in the storm.
Correct:	Forty per cent of the houses in the town were severely damaged in the storm.
Typical error:	Most of the passengers filled out the survey that was handed out. The survey showed that the majority was from Florida.
Correct:	Most of the passengers filled out the survey that was handed out. The survey showed that the majority were from Florida. ("Majority" refers to passengers.)

Subject-verb agreement errors

When several words or phrases separate the subject and the verb

Examples when several words or phrases separate the subject and the verb
	Sentences
Typical error:	Despite the forecast of rain, Martha, with help from the twins, Calvin and Julian, were busy setting up for the garden party she had planned.
Correct:	Despite the forecast of rain, Martha, with help from the twins, Calvin and Julian, was busy setting up for the garden party she had planned. ("Martha" is the subject.)
Typical error:	The demand for changes to the college’s outreach programmes are going to be addressed at the next meeting.
Correct:	The demand for changes to the college’s outreach programmes is going to be addressed at the next meeting. ("Demand" is the subject.)
Typical error:	Melon slices of cantaloupe, honeydew, and watermelon is a favourite treat of pet rats.
Correct:	Melon slices of cantaloupe, honeydew, and watermelon are a favourite treat of pet rats.

When the verb precedes the subject

Examples when the verb precedes the subject
	Sentences
Typical error:	There are little news to report.
Correct:	There is little news to report. ("News" is the subject.)
Typical error:	Electric blue is the skies today.
Correct:	Electric blue are the skies today. ("The skies" is the subject.)
Typical error:	There remains a number of unanswered questions.
Correct:	There remain a number of unanswered questions. ("A number" means "several," so it is treated as a plural subject requiring a plural verb.)

When two subjects are joined by "either . . . or" / "neither . . . nor," and one subject is singular and the other is plural, the verb agrees with the nearest one

Examples of when two subjects are joined and one subject is singular and the other is plural
	Sentences
Typical error:	Neither Luke nor his sisters has been invited to the dinner.
Correct:	Neither Luke nor his sisters have been invited to the dinner. ("Sisters" is plural and is closest to the verb, so a plural verb is used.)
Typical error:	Either poor planning or the logistics of trying to implement the program has defeated what was initially a good idea.
Correct:	Either poor planning or the logistics of trying to implement the program have defeated what was initially a good idea. ("Logistics" is plural and is closest to the verb, a plural verb is used.)

With compound subjects using "and" or "or"

Examples with compound subjects using and or or
	Sentences
Typical error:	Putting on my boots, picking something up, and reaching up over my head causes my shoulder to dislocate.
Correct:	Putting on my boots, picking something up, and reaching up over my head cause my shoulder to dislocate.
Typical error:	My mother, step-father, or brother are coming to help with the move.
Correct:	My mother, step-father, or brother is coming to help with the move.
Typical error:	My mother, step-father, or my brothers is coming to help with the move.
Correct:	My mother, step-father, or my brothers are coming to help with the move.

Note that the patterns: "A, B, and C are..." and "A, B, or C is...". However, when the subjects are a mixture of singular and plural joined with "or," the verb agrees with the nearest subject.

When "who," "which," and "that" are used as subjects of a clause, the verb must agree with the antecedent

Examples of when, who, which, and that are used as subjects of a clause
	Sentences
Typical error:	The student who do best in school doesn’t always do best in life.
Correct:	The student who does best in school doesn’t always do best in life. ("Student" is the antecedent of "who," so a singular verb is used.)
Typical error:	The defendant’s sentence, which have provoked a public outcry, is going to be reviewed by the Minister of Justice.
Correct:	The defendant’s sentence, which has provoked a public outcry, is going to be reviewed by the Minister of Justice. ("Sentence" is singular and the antecedent of "which," so the clause requires a singular verb.)
Typical error:	The children who still shows signs of infection are being kept in isolation.
Correct:	The children who still show signs of infection are being kept in isolation. ("Children" is plural and the antecedent of "who," so the clause requires a plural verb.)

Pronoun reference agreement

Pronoun and antecedent

Pronouns take the place of nouns. If the pronoun is referring to a stated noun, the noun to which the pronoun refers (the antecedent) must be clear, and the pronoun must agree in number with the antecedent.

Pronoun reference errors

When the antecedent to which the pronoun should refer is not clear

Examples when the antecedent to which the pronoun should refer is not clear
	Sentences
Typical error:	Hamdi was helping an old man cross the road when he tripped and fell. (Who tripped and fell, Hamdi or the old man?)
Correct:	When he was helping an old man cross the road, Hamdi tripped and fell.
Typical error:	Sophia took Fernanda to the ski outfitters where she bought some new poles. (Who bought some new poles, Sophia or Fernanda?)
Correct:	When she took Fernanda to the ski outfitters, Sophia bought some new poles.
Typical error:	Batta’s mother let her take her new camera on the trip. (Whose new camera, Batta’s or her mother’s?)
Correct:	Batta was allowed to take her mother’s new camera on the trip.

When the pronoun is too far away from the antecedent

Examples when the pronoun is too far away from the antecedent
	Sentences
Typical error:	The plague had a profound influence on political and social developments in the fourteenth century: it greatly reduced the population, which created an atmosphere of distress and a sense of crisis. It was the direct cause of social and economic conflict. (In the second sentence, what does "it" refer to: the plague, an atmosphere of distress, or a sense of crisis?)
Correct:	The plague had a profound influence on political and social developments in the fourteenth century: it greatly reduced the population, which created an atmosphere of distress and a sense of crisis. This dreaded disease was the direct cause of social and economic conflict.

With the vague use of "this," "that," or "which" when referring to the general idea in a preceding clause or sentence

Examples with the vague use of this, that, or which when referring to the general idea in a preceding clause or sentence
	Sentences
Typical error:	The orchestra rose to its feet and the conductor twirled her baton, which delighted the audience. (What does "which" refer to, the orchestra's action, or the conductor's, or both?)
Correct:	The orchestra rose to its feet, and the audience was delighted when the conductor twirled her baton.
Typical error:	Kacy had difficulty getting on with fellow-support staff, but her organizational skills were outstanding. That’s why she was made office manager. (Why? Because she didn’t get along with staff, or because of her organizational skills?)
Correct:	Kacy had difficulty getting on with fellow-support staff, but because of her outstanding organizational skills, she was made office manager.
Typical error:	Mick told his friends and family that he was going to emigrate to Australia. This upset everyone. (What upset them, his decision to emigrate or his telling them?)
Correct:	Mick told his friends and family that he was going to emigrate to Australia. His news upset everyone.

When a pronoun is used to refer to an implied but unexpressed noun

Examples when a pronoun is used to refer to an implied but unexpressed noun
	Sentences
Typical error:	Miroslav had been interested in engineering ever since he was taken on a tour of the steel plant when he was twelve, and now his dream of becoming one was coming true. (There is mention of engineering but not of engineers.)
Correct:	Miroslav had been interested in engineering ever since he was taken on a tour of the steel plant when he was twelve, and now his dream of becoming an engineer was coming true.
Typical error:	I had hoped Lila would call, and I waited all afternoon for it to ring. (What does "it" refer to?)
Correct:	I had hoped Lila would call, and I waited all afternoon for the phone to ring.
Typical error:	When the president’s memorandum was circulated, she put her phone on call-forward so that no one could get through to her directly. (There is no antecedent for "she." "President’s" is an adjective modifying memorandum. See " Possessive nouns" in the "Adjectives" section.)
Correct:	When the president had her memorandum circulated, she put her phone on call-forward so that no one could get through to her directly.

With the vague use of "they" and "you"

Examples with the vague use of they and you
	Sentences
Typical error:	In some homes, they consider speaking during meals bad manners. (Who are "they"?)
Correct:	In some homes, speaking during meals is considered bad manners.
Typical error:	In Paris, you aren’t allowed to sit or lie on park lawns. (Only me, or others too?)
Correct:	In Paris, people aren’t allowed to sit or lie on park lawns.
Typical error:	They drive on the left in less than half of the countries than where they drive on the right. (Who are "they"?)
Correct:	People drive on the left in less than half of the countries where people drive on the right.

With "it says" when referring to information in newspapers, magazines, books, etc.

Examples with indefinite pronouns such as someone, everyone, somebody, etc.
	Sentences
Typical error:	It says that astrogeologists are exploring the possibility of mining asteroids.
Correct:	The article says that astrogeologists are exploring the possibility of mining asteroids.
Typical error:	It says in the book I’m reading on child-rearing that parents should encourage independence in a child.
Correct:	The book I’m reading on child-rearing says that parents should encourage independence in a child.

Shifts

Consistency in sentences is kept by using one subject, one tense, voice, and mood, and one person and number in pronouns. Unnecessary shifts should be avoided. Shifts commonly occur between the following:

Types of shifts

Subject and voice

Examples of subject and voice shifts
	Sentence
Typical error:	When Olga was travelling in Europe, a lot of her time was spent standing in line-ups, waiting to buy tickets. (The subject of the main clause —"Olga" —is not consistent with that of the subordinate clause —“a lot of her time.” Also , whereas the voice in the subordinate clause is active, the voice in the main clause has shifted to the passive voice.)
Correct:	When Olga was travelling in Europe, she spent a lot of her time standing in line-ups, waiting to buy tickets. ( "Olga" is the subject in both clauses , and a ctive voice is used in both clause s.)
Typical error:	As David neared the door, the tinkle of Lavinia’s joyful laugh could be heard.
Correct:	As David neared the door, he heard the tinkle of Lavinia’s joyful laugh.
Typical error:	If you are considering a holiday in Mexico this year, Furuta’s book about the country is required reading.
Correct:	If you are considering a holiday in Mexico this year, you must read Furuta’s book about the country.
Typical error:	Although evidence was produced, they rejected it as inadmissible.
Correct:	Although evidence was produced, it was rejected as inadmissible.

Person or number

Shifts in number in a sentence may also be called errors in pronoun reference. Shifts in number are clearly pronoun reference errors when they occur from sentence to sentence in a paragraph.

Examples of person or number shifts
	Sentence
Typical error:	Jan likes to holiday in remote places where you don’t see another person for days on end. (Shift from first person singular to second person singular.)
Correct:	Jan likes to holiday in remote places where he doesn’t see another person for days on end.
Typical error:	I often have half a grapefruit for breakfast because they are so refreshing. ( "Half a grapefruit" is singular, "they " is plural.)
Correct:	I often have half a grapefruit for breakfast because it is so refreshing.
Typical error:	Because they give him indigestion, Dan didn’t order the fish. ("Fish" is singular, "they" is plural.)
Correct:	Because fish gives him indigestion, Dan didn’t order it.
Typical error:	The police were called in because everyone had had their cars stolen. They came to the hall, parked, and went in. (Who came to the hall, the guests or the police? This example illustrates the problem caused by the treatment of indefinite pronouns as plural.)
Correct:	The police were called in because all the guests had had their cars stolen. The guests had come to the hall, parked, and gone in not twenty minutes before.
	or
	The police were called in because of all the stolen cars. They came to the hall, parked, and went in to question the guests. (Now it is clear that they refers to police.)

Note: Third person plural "they" is now acceptable in reference to a single person. This is common practice to avoid misgendering the person. As the American Psychological Association explains, "it is inclusive of all people and helps writers avoid making assumptions."

Correct:	When an employee is laid off, they initially go into a state of shock. (There is only one employee, but the plural pronoun “they” can be used to refer to the employee.)
Correct:	The student expressed their confidence in their performance on the final exam.

Tense

Change tense only when the meaning or the grammar requires such a change.

Examples of tense shifts
	Sentence
Typical error:	He picked up his mail and starts to say something, but then leaves without a word.
Correct:	He picked up his mail and started to say something, but then left without a word.
Typical error:	Addison was playing happily with her toy one minute, and in the next, she is throwing herself on to the floor, screaming.
Correct:	Addison was playing happily with her toy one minute, and in the next, she was throwing herself on to the floor, screaming.
Typical error:	In a panic, I grabbed my phone and dash to the door.
Correct:	In a panic, I grabbed my phone and dashed to the door.
Typical error:	When Jude asked Katrine whether she had liked the film, she said she didn’t.
Correct:	When Jude asked Katrine whether she had liked the film, she said she hadn’t.

Moods

Mood shifts are common in prose, that is, in paragraphs or other long texts. In particular, be careful to use imperative mood ("Do this") when describing a process or giving instructions. In general, mood should be kept consistent with a context unless this context dictates otherwise.

Examples of mood shifts
	Sentence
Typical error:	If I had the money, I want to buy a truck. (Shift from subjunctive to indicative)
Correct:	If I had the money, I would buy a truck.
Typical error:	Enter your login information, press enter, then you have to type in your password. (Shift from the imperative to the indicative)
Correct:	Enter your login information, press enter, then type in your password. (Use imperative when giving instructions.)
Typical error:	The manager recommends that she takes early retirement. (The "that" clause requires the present subjunctive.)
Correct:	The manager recommends that she take early retirement.
Typical error:	When you are making bread, the first step is to "proof" the yeast (to dissolve it in lukewarm water to make sure it's alive and working). At the same time, the fat should be melted in very hot liquid. When the yeast has risen a little, cool the liquid to lukewarm and add the yeast mixture. (The paragraph shifts to imperative in the last sentence. However, describing a process is not the same as giving instructions.)
Correct:	When you are making bread, the first step is to "proof" the yeast (to dissolve it in lukewarm water to make sure it's alive and working). At the same time, the fat should be melted in very hot liquid. When the yeast has risen a little, the fat/liquid mixture should be cooled to lukewarm and the yeast mixture added. (The last sentence stays in the indicative mood , which expresses a fact.

Indirect and direct speech

Examples of indirect and direct speech shifts
	Sentence
Typical error:	Barry wondered whether Ema had left a note and what should I do if she hasn’t. (Shift from indirect speech to direct speech)
Correct:	Barry wondered whether Ema had left a note and what he should do if she hadn’t. (Only indirect/reported speech is used.)
	or
	Barry wondered aloud, "Has Ema left a note? What should I do if she hasn’t?" (Only direct speech is used.)

Misplaced parts/modifier reference

A misplaced modifier fails to convey the writer’s intended meaning and confuses the reader. Errors generally occur under the following conditions:

With adverbs of degree or limitation

These adverbs should be placed immediately before the word the writer wants them to modify.

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with adverbs of degree or limitation
Examples:	actually	even	nearly	precisely
	almost	hardly (ever)	only	shortly
	assuredly	(only) just	practically	truly

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with adverbs of degree or limitation
	Sentence
Typical error:	He only left ten minutes ago. (This would mean that he only left; he didn’t perform any other action. It makes little sense, especially with the time given.)
Correct:	He left only ten minutes ago. ("Only" modifies ten minutes.)
Typical error:	The police just don’t suspect Marius, but everyone who was at the party. (This means that the police don’t suspect Tom, but do suspect everyone else.)
Correct:	The police don’t suspect just Marius, but everyone who was at the party.
Typical error:	We almost drove the whole way without stopping. (You almost drove, so did you in fact walk, or did you go anywhere at all?)
Correct:	We drove almost the whole way without stopping.

With modifying phrases

Such phrases are placed directly after the words the writer wants to modify.

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with modifying phrases
	Sentence
Typical error:	Kornelia ordered a fridge from a company in Kitchener with a built-in ice maker. (This means that the company has a built-in ice maker.)
Correct:	Kornelia ordered a fridge with a built-in ice maker from a company in Kitchener. (The modifying phrase "with a built-in ice maker" is placed directly after the word it modifies—"fridge." However, there may still be confusion about whether the fridge or ice maker is from Kitchener.)
	or
	A company in Kitchener is sending Kornelia her order of fridge with built-in ice maker. (Now it is clear that the whole unit is from a company in Kitchener.)
Typical error:	The child was delighted to meet her great-grandmother for the first time that she called "Mimzy." (This means that "the first time" was named Mimzy.)
Correct:	The child was delighted to meet for the first time the great-grandmother she called "Mimzy."
Typical error:	Zora Neale Hurston published Mules and Men about folktales from her Florida hometown in the 1930s. (This means that she wrote about folktales from the 1930s and not before.)
Correct:	In the 1930s, Zora Neale Hurston published Mules and Men, an autoethnography of folktales from her Florida hometown.

With modifying clauses

Clauses modifying nouns usually begin with "who," "which," "that," or "whose."

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with modifying clauses
	Sentence
Typical error:	When crossing the park, I met Mr. Jacobs walking his dog whose partner had just died. (This means that the dog’s partner had just died.)
Correct:	When crossing the park, I met Mr. Jacobs, whose partner had just died, walking his dog.
Typical error:	The start of the trail was discovered behind an abandoned meat-packing plant that led to the old mine shaft. (This means that the plant led to the mine shaft.)
Correct:	The start of the trail that led to the old mine shaft was discovered behind an abandoned meat-packing plant.

Adverbial clauses begin with words such as “when,” “before,” “since,” and “because.” Writers should be careful to place adverbial clauses so that they modify the intended words.

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with adverbial clauses
	Sentence
Typical error:	The neighborhood committee cleared the garbage from the picnic site when it began to stink. (Here "it" refers to the picnic site, not the garbage.)
Correct:	When it began to stink, the neighborhood committee cleared the garbage from the picnic site.
Typical error:	The driver had their car towed to the mechanic's shop after it collided with a stop sign. (This suggests that the mechanic's shop collided with a stop sign.)
Correct:	After their car collided with a stop sign, the driver had it towed to the mechanic's shop.

With squinting modifiers

Such modifiers could be modifying either the preceding or following word.

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with squinting modifiers
	Sentence
Typical error:	We told him often to practice. (It is not clear whether the telling was often or the practice was to be often.)
Correct:	We told him to practice often.
	or
	We often told him to practice.
Typical error:	She promised during her lunch break to give us a call. (The modifier squints at both "promise" and "to give us a call.")
Correct:	She promised to give us a call during her lunch break.

With split infinitives

Avoid splitting the “to” from the base verb if it could cause confusion.

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with split infinitives
	Sentence
Typical error:	Qing decided to, at the age of fifteen, become a pilot. (Did she decide at fifteen, or did she decide to become a pilot at fifteen?)
Correct:	At the age of fifteen, Qing decided to become a pilot.
Typical error:	The director tried to realistically make a film about everyday life in the Yukon. (How could they “realistically” make something?)
Correct:	The director tried to make a realistic film about everyday life in the Yukon.

However, sometimes it is more logical to split the "to" from the base verb. Consider these examples of appropriately split infinitives from readers of The Guardian. The last example is a famous example of a correctly split infinitive from Star Trek.

Correct:	Some days it feels most comfortable to hardly try at all. (It wouldn't make sense "to try hardly" or "hardly to try").
Correct:	He decided to simply ignore the advice to never split an infinitive. ("Simply to ignore" or "to ignore simply" would have different meanings than "to simply ignore.")
Correct:	"These are the voyages of the starship Enterprise. Its continuing mission: to explore strange new worlds; to seek out new life and new civilizations; to boldly go where no one has gone before!"

With auxiliary verbs

Avoid using parenthetical elements to split up verb phrases.

Examples of misplaced parts/modifiers with auxiliary verbs
	Sentence
Typical error:	Miriam had, according to Angelo, already reported the incident to the Occupational Health and Safety officer.
Correct:	According to Angelo, Miriam had already reported the incident to the Occupational Health and Safety officer.
Typical error:	My supervisor will, I hope, consider my proposal worthy of attention.
Correct:	I hope my supervisor will consider my proposal worthy of attention.
Typical error:	There is, without a doubt, going to be serious public unrest if the regime doesn’t introduce more political reforms
Correct:	Without a doubt, there is going to be serious public unrest if the regime doesn’t introduce more political reforms.

Dangling modifiers

When the word being modified is implied but not explicitly stated, the modifier is left dangling; it is not attached to anything and is called a dangling modifier. Dangling modifiers commonly occur:

With participial phrases

A participial phrase consists of a participle (verb+ing / verb+ed), its object, and any modifiers of the participle or object.

Examples of dangling modifiers with participial phrases
	Sentence
Typical error:	Driving long distances late at night, disquieting thoughts often enter my head. (This means the disquieting thoughts drive long distances late at night. The word that the writer intended to modify is missing.)
Correct:	Driving long distances late at night, I often have disquieting thoughts enter my head.
Typical error:	Being extremely hot, the artist called a glassblower must be very careful when handling it. (This means the artist is extremely hot.)
Correct:	Because the molten glass is extremely hot, the artist called a glassblower must be very careful when handling it.
Typical error:	Stretched out under the tree with the sun sprinkling through the leafy canopy, his children skipped across the field. (The subject who is "stretched out" is implied but not stated.)
Correct:	He stretched out under the tree with the sun sprinkling through the leafy canopy as his children skipped across the field.

With gerund phrases

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb+ing used as a noun), its object, and any modifiers of the gerund or object.

Examples of dangling modifiers with gerund phrases
	Sentence
Typical error:	Before going to breakfast, an inspection of our dorm was conducted by the matron. (This means that an inspection was going to go to breakfast. The word that the writer intended to modify is missing.)
Correct:	Before allowing us to go to breakfast, the matron conducted an inspection of our dorm.
Typical error:	After locking all the doors and windows, the house felt impenetrable. (This means the house locked itself.)
Correct:	After locking all the doors and windows, we felt the house was impenetrable.
Typical error:	When teaching adults, an entirely different approach is needed. (Who is doing the teaching?)
Correct:	When teaching adults, instructors must use an entirely different approach.

With infinitive phrases

An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive, its object, and any modifiers of the infinitive or object.

Examples of dangling modifiers with infinitive phrases
	Sentence
Typical error:	To repair the upper brickwork on the front of the apartment building, scaffolding had to be erected. (This means the scaffolding repaired the brickwork.)
Correct:	To repair the upper brickwork on the front of the apartment building, the workers had to erect scaffolding.
Typical error:	To get to where he is today, a lot of people had to be pushed out of his way. (This means a lot of people got where he is today.)
Correct:	To get to where he is today, he had to push a lot of people out of his way.
Typical error:	In order to have an honourable future, our dishonourable past will have to be acknowledged.
Correct:	In order to have an honourable future, all of us will have to acknowledge our dishonourable past.

With elliptical clauses

In elliptical clauses, the subject is understood but not stated. The problem can be avoided by (1) making the subject agree with that of the main clause and (2) stating the absent subject or verb.

Examples of dangling modifiers with elliptical clauses
	Sentence
Typical error:	While crossing the bridge, a sudden gust of wind blew his hat off. (Who was crossing the bridge?)
Correct:	While he was crossing the bridge, a sudden gust of wind blew his hat off.
Typical error:	When in Rome, a harpist she had only just met proposed to her. (This suggests the harpist was visiting Rome.)
Correct:	When in Rome, she was proposed to by a harpist she had only just met. (She was visiting Rome.)
	or
	A harpist she had only just met proposed to her while she was in Rome.
Typical error:	After a day's trek in the mountains, a long soak in a hot bath relaxes aching muscles. (Who was trekking in the mountains?)
Correct:	After a day's trek in the mountains, I love to relax my aching muscles through a long soak in a hot bath.

Parallelism

Parallel thoughts or ideas (thoughts or ideas of equal rank and value) are conveyed by using parallel grammatical structures. Errors in parallelism occur:

With coordinate elements

Use nouns with nouns, infinitives with infinitives, prepositional phrases with prepositional phrases, adjective clauses with adjective clauses, and so on.

Examples of parallelism with coordinate elements
	Sentence
Typical error:	He likes to read and playing hockey.
Correct:	He likes to read and to play hockey. (infinitive + infinitive)
Typical error:	She found herself out of love, with no money, and having no luck.
Correct:	She found herself out of love, out of funds, and out of luck. (prepositional phrase + prepositional phrase)
Typical error:	I had dinner with Martha James, a highly respected scholar and who is also a champion skier.
Correct:	I had dinner with Martha James, a highly respected scholar who is also a champion skier. (adjective clause + adjective clause)
Typical error:	After our trek, we felt grimy, tired, and wanted something to eat.
Correct:	After our trek, we felt grimy, tired, and hungry. (adjective + adjective)
Typical error:	The new president plans to flatten the administration hierarchy, reduce middle management, and to combine Media Services with Marketing. ("to" is repeated in only two of three actions)
Correct:	The new president plans to flatten the administration hierarchy, to reduce middle management, and to combine Media Services with Marketing.

With "than" and "as" (also called comparison errors)

Examples of parallelism with than and as
	Sentence
Typical error:	I have observed that a child’s perceptions of the world are sometimes more astute than an adult. (This means the perceptions are more astute than an adult is astute.)
Correct:	I have observed that a child’s perceptions of the world are sometimes more astute than an adult’s.
Typical error:	A labourer’s salary is as difficult to earn as a lawyer. (It doesn’t make sense to earn a lawyer.)
Correct:	A labourer’s salary is as difficult to earn as a lawyer’s.

With correlative conjunctions

These include "either . . . or," "neither . . . nor," "both . . . and," "not only . . . but also"

Examples of parallelism with correlative conjunctions
	Sentence
Typical error:	You can get to Lake Cynthia either by train or go by bus.
Correct:	You can get to Lake Cynthia either by train or by bus.
Typical error:	Neither wringing your hands nor if you pull your hair will solve the problem.
Correct:	Neither wringing your hands nor pulling your hair will solve the problem.
Typical error:	He not only felt sorry for her but also was feeling sorry for himself.
Correct:	He felt sorry not only for her but also for himself.
or	He not only felt sorry for her but also for himself.
Typical error:	Both vendor and the person who was buying eventually agreed to a compromise.
Correct	Both vendor and buyer eventually agreed to a compromise.

Omissions

Many omissions are common in informal writing and in speech. They are, however, incorrect in formal English. Omissions commonly occur:

With repetition of articles, prepositions, the "to" of the infinitive, etc. in compound constructions

Examples of omissions with repetition of articles, prepositions, the to of the infinitive, etc. in compound constructions
	Sentence
Typical error:	The successful candidate must be personable and presentable and also be able to work independently.
Correct:	The successful candidate must be personable and presentable and must also be able to work independently. (repetition of the modal "must")
Typical error:	In the box were a number of small curios: a silver tinderbox, ivory hand-mirror, two ornate candlesticks, brass doorknob, and several cameo brooches. (The required articles are different, so cannot be omitted.)
Correct:	In the box were a number of small curios: a silver tinderbox, an ivory hand-mirror, two ornate candlesticks, a brass doorknob, and several cameo brooches.

With prepositions and conjunctions

Examples of omissions with prepositions and conjunctions
	Sentence
Typical error:	Wayne put his back out again end of last season. (This is common in colloquial, spoken English, but it is not acceptable in formal, written English.)
Correct:	Wayne put his back out again at the end of the last season.
Typical error:	Hundreds of people gathered Churchill Square last night to ring in the New Year. (missing the preposition "in")
Correct:	Hundreds of people gathered in Churchill Square last night to ring in the New Year.
Typical error:	He ran out of the house, got into his car, screeched off down the road. I haven’t seen him since. (missing the conjunction "and")
Correct:	He ran out of the house, got into his car, and screeched off down the road. I haven’t seen him since.

With verb forms

Examples of omissions with verb forms
	Sentence
Typical error:	Hannah says she has never forgotten and never will the time she got stuck in an elevator. (The form of the verb required for "will" is different from that required for "has," so the verb "forget" cannot be omitted.)
Correct:	Hannah says she has never forgotten and never will forget the time she got stuck in an elevator.
Typical error:	The other parents were disappointed with the way the school dealt with the problem, but Joanne appalled. ( "Were" agrees with "mothers" but does not agree with "Joanne," so the verb "was" cannot be omitted.)
Correct:	The other parents were disappointed with the way the school dealt with the problem, but Joanne was appalled.
Typical error:	The twins have their bats and balls, and Kosa his books. ( "Have" agrees with "twins" but not with "Hanna," so the verb "has " cannot be omitted.)
Correct:	The twins have their bats and balls, and Kosa has his books.

Coordination

Coordination is a way of joining sentence elements (words, phrases, and clauses) to indicate grammatical equivalency of the elements. That is, coordination indicates that the elements are of equal importance, rank, value, and so on.

Primer style writing is an introductory type of writing that uses simple sentences to coordinate ideas. However, the examples below show that the primer style is boring:

Examples of primer style
Primer style:	Terra likes coffee. Stuart likes coffee. Terra doesn’t like tea. Stuart doesn't like tea.

These sentences, however, show that there are equivalencies—ideas of equal rank and value that can be coordinated in a more interesting sentence structure:

Examples of coordinated sentence
Coordinated version:	Both Terra and Stuart like coffee, but neither likes tea.

Types of coordination

With coordinating conjunctions. A mnemonic device to remember the coordinating conjunctions is FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so)

Examples with coordinating conjunctions
	Sentence
Primer style:	David washes the dishes. He vacuums the house. He cleans the bathroom. He makes the bed.
Coordinated version:	David washes the dishes, vacuums the house, cleans the bathroom, or makes the bed. (coordinate predicates; coordinating conjunction "or")
Primer style:	The sofa was old. It was comfortable.
Coordinated version:	The sofa was old but comfortable. (coordinate adjectives; coordinating conjunction "but")

With correlative conjunctions ("both . . . and," "either . . . or," "neither . . . nor," "not . . . but," "not only . . . but also")

Examples with correlative conjunctions
	Sentence
Primer style:	Someone will drive you to the airport. It may be Tom. It may be me.
Coordinated version:	Either Tom or I will drive you to the airport.
Primer style:	The apartment has an audiovisual room. It also has a heated in-door swimming pool.
Coordinated version:	The apartment not only has an audiovisual room but also has a heated in-door swimming pool.

With conjunctive adverbs ("however," "consequently," "therefore," "nevertheless," etc.)

When used with a semicolon, these adverbs may be used to coordinate whole sentences (see "The Semicolon").

Examples with conjunctive adverbs
	Sentence
Primer style:	Seamus did not produce any work for two years. He lost his job.
Coordinated version:	Seamus did not produce any work for two years; consequently, he lost his job.
Primer style:	You wrote very well. You did not quite answer the question.
Coordinated version:	You wrote very well; however, you did not quite answer the question.

Coordination errors

Illogical coordination

Examples with illogical coordination
	Sentence
Typical error:	Computers were first introduced to the office environment in the late 60s, and they are less expensive now than they were then. (The two ideas expressed here are not logically related, so they should not be coordinated.)
Correct:	Computers were first introduced to the office environment in the late 60s, and they have since become an integral part of office routine.
Typical error:	The university library has access to a number of databases, and students can use the new digital service to reserve books. (The two ideas are unrelated and so should not be coordinated.)
Correct:	The university library has access to a number of databases, and students can learn how to access these resources by attending this Friday’s information session

Overuse of coordination

Examples of overuse of coordination
	Sentence
Typical error:	At times, a series of less complex sentences is best, and this is especially the case when you may want to make each idea or detail stand out as equally important, but at most times, however, you will want to make one idea stand out and you will want to present that idea along with secondary details.
Correct:	At times, a series of less complex sentences is best, and this is especially the case when you may want to make each idea or detail stand out as equally important. At most times, however, you will want to make one idea stand out and to present that idea along with secondary details.
Typical error:	The gulf between the haves and have-nots has widened considerably in the last two decades, and there are several identified causes for this state of affairs, one being that information technology quickly made redundant the skills of a whole generation, which placed those people outside the job market, and another is that government economic policies have pandered to multi-national corporations.
Correct:	The gulf between the haves and have-nots has widened considerably in the last two decades. Several changes explain this state of affairs. One is that information technology quickly made redundant the skills of a whole generation, which placed those people outside the job market. Another is that government economic policies have pandered to multi-national corporations.

Subordination

Subordination is important for conveying logical relationships between ideas in sentences. A writer uses subordination when he or she highlights an independent (main) clause to express his or her most important idea, and a dependent clause to express a related but less important idea.

A sentence that contains an independent clauses and one or more dependent ones is called a complex sentence.

Short simple sentences written in primer style can often be combined with subordination.

Example of a complex sentence
Primer style:	Francis had a shower at 7 o'clock. He had breakfast at 7:30.

This sequence of events can be combined in one sentence. The writer may want to give more importance to the first action (had a shower) in which case they will subordinate the second one (had breakfast):

Example of subordinated sentence
Subordinated version:	Francis had a shower before he had breakfast.

Or, the writer may want to highlight the second action:

Example of subordinated sentence highlighting the second action
Subordinated version:	Francis had breakfast after he had a shower.

Types of subordination

With subordinating conjunctions ("if," "when," "in order that," "because," etc.) See "Conjunctions."

Example with subordinating conjunctions
	Sentence
Primer style:	The banks raised their interest rates. As a result, the economy did not pick up as expected.
Subordinated version:	If the banks had not raised their interest rates, the economy would have picked up as expected. (The relationship the writer wishes to convey is that of condition and result.)
Primer style:	The company put all employees on a four-day work week. This was done to prevent many lay-offs.
Subordinated version:	In order that there be fewer lay-offs, the company put all employees on a four-day work-week. (The relationship is that of purpose.)
Primer style:	Malia started making her own clothes. She could not afford brand new ones.
Subordinated version:	Malia started making her own clothes because she could not afford brand new ones. (The relationship is that of reason.)

With adjective clauses: restrictive (defining, essential), non-restrictive (non-defining, non-essential) See "Clause Recognition."

Non-restrictive clauses (also called "non-essential," "non-defining," or "non-identifying" clauses) are set off by a comma and the information provided is just additional information; it is not needed to identify the noun that they qualify.

e.g. Dr. Chinatsu Tahara, who is my next-door neighbour, is a good friend of mine.

Restrictive clauses (also called "essential ," "defining ," or "identifying" clauses ) are not set off by a comma , and the information provided is needed (essential) to identify the noun that they qualify.

e.g. The neighbour who lives next door is a good friend of mine.

Example with adjective clauses
	Sentence
Primer style:	A dog jumped on me. The woman walking him happened to be my high school teacher.
Subordinated version:	The woman whose dog jumped on me happened to be my high school teacher. (The adjective clause defines which woman , so it is essential—no commas are used.)
Primer style:	Mx. Jordan met with the academic advisory committee last Wednesday. Mx. Jordan was recently appointed Academic Vice-President.
Subordinated version:	Mx. Jordan, who was recently appointed Academic Vice-President, met with the academic advisory committee last Wednesday. (The adjective clause is not defining but merely giving more information about the subject, M x. Jordan. Therefore, it is non-essential, and commas are used around the clause.)

With clauses requiring "that" or "which".

There is a further difference when using clauses requiring "that" or "which ." Only use "which" for non-restrictive clauses. Usually "that" is used for restrictive clauses, but "which" can be used instead.

e.g. The house that belongs to Dr. Tahara is next door to us; your friend’s bungalow, which is a much smaller house, is on the other side.

Example with clauses requiring that or which
	Sentence
Primer style:	The train was going very fast. Such speed was dangerous.
Subordinated version:	The train was going very fast, which was dangerous. (The adjective clause is not defining anything but merely giving more information , so a comma is used before "which. ")
Primer style:	There is a sculpture on the shelf. My cousin made it. It is of a toadstool sheltering a mouse.
Subordinated version:	The sculpture that shows a toadstool sh eltering a mouse was made by my cousin. (The adjective clause is defining the sculpture, so no comma s are used.)
	Or:
Subordinated version:	The sculpture which shows a toadstool sheltering a mouse was made by my cousin.

Subordination errors

Overuse of subordination of clauses

Examples with overuse of subordination of clauses
	Sentence
Typical error:	When I met Mohammad, which is twenty years ago now, he was working at Latera’s , which was a law firm that had offices above the caf é where I used to have my morning cup of coffee.
Correct:	When I met Mohammad twenty years ago, he was working at Latera’s, a law firm with offices above a café where I used to have my morning cup of coffee.
Typical error:	In the middle of a traffic island which is off the north-east corner of the park, there is a plaque which is made of brass, which marks the spot where the famous hanging tree once stood.
Correct:	In the middle of a traffic island off the north-east corner of the park, there is a brass plaque which marks the spot where the famous hanging tree once stood.
Typical error:	After work, when he feels he has the time and energy, and when weather permits, Miguel takes his dog, Max, who is a golden retriever, to the ravine for a good run because Max is usually desperate for some exercise after he has spent the day cooped up in the house.
Correct:	After work, when time, energy, and weather permit, Mig uel takes his golden retriever, Max, to the ravine for a good run. Max is usually desperate for some exercise after spending the day cooped up in the house.

Misplacement of the most important information

Examples of misplacement of the most important information
	Sentence
Typical error:	While I discovered this old love-letter folded neatly between two pages, I was browsing through a book at the library. (The most important idea needs to be put in the main clause. Browsing through a book does not strike the reader as being as important or significant as discovering a love-letter.)
Correct:	While I was browsing through a book at the library yesterday, I discovered this old love-letter folded neatly between two pages.
Typical error:	Although Marco gave a brilliant performance of Beethoven’s "Moonlight Sonata, " he had injured his hand the day before. (The conjunction "although " is misplaced.)
Correct:	Although he had injured his hand the day before, Marco gave a brilliant performance of Beethoven’s "Moonlight Sonata. "
Typical error:	I was crossing the bridge while a sports car went screaming past me. (The conjunction while is misplaced.)
Correct:	While I was crossing the bridge, a sports car went screaming past me.

Illogical relationships created through incorrect use of subordinating conjunctions

Examples with illogical relationships created through incorrect use of subordinating conjunctions
	Sentence
Typical error:	Because it was extremely dry outside, the family decided to organize a weiner roast. (People do not usually decide on an open fire outdoors because it is dry, but rather in spite of it.)
Correct:	Although it was extremely dry outside, the family decided to organize a weiner roast.
Typical error:	When she spent many hours studying, she needed high marks to get the scholarship. (The relationship should be cause and effect, not time.)
Correct:	She needed high marks to get the scholarship, so she spent many hours studying.
Typical error:	Although you put your hand on a hot burner, you will be burned. (The relationship is cause/effect, not contrast.)
Correct:	If you put your hand on a hot burner, you will be burned.

Comparisons

Comparisons convey a relationship between two or more things (e.g. This apple is bigger than that apple.). In formal writing, a comparison between two thoughts or ideas must mention both.

Comparison errors

Incomplete comparisons

Examples of incomplete comparisons
	Sentence
Typical error:	Many people eat margarine because they think it’s healthier. ( Healthier than what? This sentence does not contain the two things required to make a complete comparison.)
Correct:	Many people eat margarine because they think it’s healthier than butter.
Typical error:	The World Happiness Report ranked Helsinki, Finland as having higher subjective well-being. (Higher than what?)
Correct:	The World Happiness Report ranked Helsinki, Finland as having higher subjective well-being than any other city in the world.
Typical error:	That child is more developed for his age than most. (Most what?)
Correct:	That child is more developed for his age than most other children.

Illogical comparisons

Examples of illogical comparisons
	Sentence
Typical error:	A child’s perception of a person’s character is often more astute than an adult. (The sentence needs to compare a child’s perception with an adult’s perception, not perception with an adult.)
Correct:	A child’s perception of a person’s character is often more astute than an adult’s.
Typical error:	The new committee’s approach is more value-driven than their predecessor s. (Here, approach is compared to a predecessor.)
Correct:	The new committee’s approach is more value-driven than their predecessors’.
Typical error:	Earning a decent living is more difficult these days than you could twenty years ago. (The example means this is more difficult than you could, which is illogical.)
Correct:	Earning a decent living is more difficult these days than it was twenty years ago.

Grammatically incomplete comparisons

Examples of grammatically incomplete comparisons
	Sentence
Typical error:	Lorna is as smart, if not smarter than, Boris. ( "As " must be used twice when used to make comparisons. Also, the commas indicate that the element between them is non-essential, so the sentence must be complete without it. It does not make sense to say "Lorna is as smart Boris.")
Correct:	Lorna is as smart as, if not smarter than, Boris.
Typical error:	The Trans-Canada Highway is longer than any Canadian highway. (When comparing items from the same class—one Canadian highway with another Canadian highway—use "any other " or "other. ")
Correct:	The Trans-Canada Highway is longer than any other Canadian highway.
Typical error:	The Trans-Canada Highway is longer than any other European highway. (Only "any ," not "any other," is used when comparing items in different classes, in this case, Canadian highways with European ones.)
Correct:	The Trans-Canada Highway is longer than any European highway.

Incorrect/illogical quality or quantity

The degree of quality or quantity is expressed by the positive (e.g. high—no degree or comparison implied), the comparative (e.g. higher), or the superlative (e.g. highest) form of the adjective or adverb. There are exceptions and irregular forms, so always check the dictionary.

In formal writing, the comparative form is used when two things are being compared:

Some common adjectives and adverbs retain irregular forms (e.g. good, better, best; badly, worse, worst).
For words w ith one syllable, add "-er " (e.g. slow, slower)
For words of two syllables ending on " -y , " use "-ier" (e.g. busy, busier)
For all other words of two syllables, use "more" (e.g. complete, more complete) For words w ith three or more syllables, always use "more " (e.g. more difficult)

Examples of incorrect/illogical quality or quantity when two things are being compared
	Sentence
Typical error:	He had more good marks this term than last. (This addresses the number of good marks rather than their quality.)
Correct:	He had better marks this term than last.
Typical error:	Mai’s car is the most expensive of the two.
Correct:	Mai’s car is the more expensive of the two. (Use the comparative form for two things.)
Typical error:	Romeo’s house, a geodesic dome, is more high than any other house in the neighbourhood.
Correct:	Romeo’s house, a geodesic dome, is higher than any other house in the neighbourhood. (Add "er" to adjectives and adverbs of one syllable.)

In formal writing, the superlative form is used when three or more things are being compared:

For words with one syllable, add "-est " (e.g. slowest)
For words of two syllables ending on "-y," use "-iest" (e.g. tastiest).
For all other words of two syllables, use "more" (e.g. more clever)
For words with three or more syllables, always use "most " (e.g. most horri fying)
Some words are by definition superlative (e.g. unique, dead, perfect)

Examples of incorrect/illogical quality or quantity when three or more things are being compared
	Sentence
Typical error:	That rose is the beautifullest I’ve ever seen.
Correct:	That rose is the most beautiful I’ve ever seen. (Put most in front of words of three or more syllables.)
Typical error:	Maria and her husband have the most unique, but unattractive, garden.
Correct:	Maria and her husband have a unique, but unattractive, garden. ( "Unique " is by definition the superlative form.)
Typical error:	The whole family went to the dentist, but Joh ann’s mouth is the most sore.
Correct:	The whole family went to the dentist, but Joh ann’s mouth is the sorest. (Add " -est " to words of one syllable.)

Speech or dialogue

In some types of writing, like reporting, creative writing, and certain business communications, there are two ways to state what someone has said .

Direct speech
1. repeats the speaker’s exact words
2. includes direct quotations and dialogue
  
  e.g. "Divorce laws should be modified, not to prevent divorce, but to signal society’s concern," he declared.
  
  My auntie used to say, "When God closes the door, the room gets stuffy."
Indirect (reported) speech
1. gives the exact meaning of what the speaker has said, but does not use the exact words
  
  Blair said that few people can distinguish illusion from delusion.

Important: Converting direct speech to indirect speech is not a substitute for paraphrasing a direct quote in academic writing.

Tense when converting direct to indirect speech

When direct speech is introduced by a verb in the past tense, the verb in the indirect speech is often changed to a corresponding past tense . This happens when reporting a past event. However, if the meaning of the original speech continues to be true, the tense stays the same .

Examples of tense changes from direct to indirect speech
Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
Simple Present "I always walk to work," she said.	Simple Present She said that she always walks to work. (She still walks to work.)
Present Progressive "They are closing off the Quesnel Bridge," he told me.	Present Progressive He told me that they are closing off the Quesnel Bridge. (They’re c urrently closing it off.)
Present Perfect "The military junta has taken control," she announced.	Past Perfect She announced that the military junta had taken control. (The indirect speech is reporting a past event.)
Present Perfect Progressive "I’ve been playing trombone in a local band for years," she said.	Present Perfect Progressive She said that she’ s been playing trombone in a local band for years. (She still plays trombone.)
Simple Past "We noticed a red car parked in the driveway," George said.	Past Perfect George said that they had noticed a unicycle parked on the sidewalk. (By now the unicycle is gone , so the event has passed .)
Future "The doctor will let me know as soon as she hears anything," Tina said.	Future Tina said that the doctor would let her know as soon she heard anything. (The doctor hasn’t called yet.)
Future Progressive "I will be making my own way to the conference," she said.	Would + be + Present Participle She said that she would mak e her own way to the conference. (She has already begun making her way , so the event is in the past .)

No change from direct to indirect speech

There are other cases in which the tense does not change when converting direct speech to i ndirect speech.

With subjunctives

Present, past, and perfect subjunctives remain unchanged in indirect speech

Examples of no changes from direct to indirect speech with subjunctives
	Sentence
	"Esther recommends that the meeting be adjourned," he stated.
=	He stated that Esther recommended that the meeting be adjourned. (present subjunctive)
	"I wish I had a car," she sighed.
=	Sighing, she said that she wished she had a car. (past subjunctive)
	"If Jasper had wanted to leave, they would have," retorted Augie.
=	Augie retorted that if Jasper had wanted to leave, they would have.

With words that usually remain unchanged

would, should, ought to, had better, might, used to, could, must

Examples of no changes from direct to indirect speech with words that usually remain unchanged
	Sentence
	"Remy would like to ask Abdel out," Skylar confided.
=	Skylar confided that Remy would like to ask Abdel out.
	" You should try some balance exercises," the physiotherapist suggested.
=	The physiotherapist suggested that I should try some balance exercises.
	"You ought to consider the consequences of your decision," Darius told Teegan.
=	Darius told Teegan that she ought to consider the consequences of her decision.
	"You’d better pick up groceries before coming home today," she suggested.
=	She suggested I’d better pick up groceries before coming home today.
	"I might be able to get away sooner than expected," Lynn said.
=	Lynn said that she might be able to get away sooner than expected.
	"I used to wear my hair long," Gus said.
=	Gus said that he used to wear his hair long.
	"Could you do me a favour?" Nile asked.
=	Nile asked me if I could do him a favour.
	"Everyone must pull together in order to get the company out of this slump," said the director.
=	The director said that everyone must pull together in order to get the company out of the slump.

Changes of time reference in indirect speech

When the verb tense changes, other references to time must also change. This occurs when reporting past events.

Examples of direct and indirect speech
Direct Speech	Indirect Speech
today	that day
yesterday	the day before, the previous day
the day before yesterday	two days before
tomorrow	the next day, the following day
the day after tomorrow	in two days’ time
next week/year, etc.	the following week/year, etc.
last week/year, etc.	the previous week/year, etc.
a year, etc. ago	the year before/the previous year

Examples of direct and indirect speech
	Sentence
	At dinner last night she announced, "I’ll be going to bed early tonight."
=	At dinner last night she announced that she would be going to bed early. ("Will" becomes "would" because the event was yesterday, which is in the past.)
	"A year ago we had many more students," the dean had commented.
=	The dean had commented that the previous year they had many more students. ("A year ago" becomes "The previous year" because the comment being reported was in the past.)
	"Tomorrow will be a better day," he had promised.
=	He had promised that the next day would be better.

Other changes in indirect speech

Other changes may be needed to make the indirect speech logical. Which word to choose depends on whether the event in the direct speech is still true.

With "here" and "there"

Examples of other changes in indirect speech with here and there
	Sentence
	Phoebe dropped by my office and said, "I’ll meet you here at 11."
=	Phoebe dropped by my office and said she’ll meet me here at 11. (I’m in my office now.)
or	Phoebe dropped by my office and said she’ll meet me there at 11. (I’m not in my office now.)
	"How long have you been living here?" Sid asked Justine.
=	Sid asked Justine how long she had been living there.

With "this" and "that"

Examples of other changes in indirect speech with this and that
	Sentence
	"I’m expecting a call from New York this evening," he noted.
=	He said that he was expecting a call from New York that evening. (The indirect speech is being reported on a later date.)
	"I’ve been waiting for this moment all my life," she exclaimed.
=	She exclaimed that she had been waiting for that moment all her life. (The moment is now over.)

When "this" and "these/those" are used as pronouns, they may be changed to "it," "they," or "them"

Examples of other changes in indirect speech when used with "this" and "these/those"
	Sentence
	She pointed at two remarkable etchings. "I picked those up for next to nothing at a flea market."
=	She pointed at two remarkable etchings and said that she had picked them up for next to nothing at a flea market. (The event is being reported later, so the speaker cannot show which etchings she was talking about.)
	He showed me his pen and explained, "My mother gave this to me when I graduated."
=	He showed me his pen and explained that his mother had given it to him when he graduated.

When used as adjectives, "this" and "that" usually change to "the" or "a" if the speech is being reported later.

Examples of changes in indirect speech when "this" and "that" are used as adjectives
	Sentence
	"I’ve picked out this greenshirt to go with my suit," she stated.
=	She said that she had picked out a green shirt to go with her suit.
	"That cookbook above the kitchen sink is my absolute favourite," he declared.
=	He declared that the cookbook above his kitchen sink is his absolute favourite. (The event is being reported later, so the speaker cannot show which cookbook he was talking about.)
	"Why did you wear that hot pink coat to the party tonight?" Val questioned.
=	Val questioned why I had worn the hot pink coat to the party that night.

Questions from direct to indirect speech

There are guidelines to keep in mind when converting a question from direct to indirect speech.

Reporting a question

When the question is reported indirectly, the question mark is replaced with a period.
Examples of other changes in indirect speech with questions

Examples of other changes in indirect speech with questions
	Sentence
	When’s the next train?" she asked.
=	She asked when the next train was.
	"Mira, what did you study at university?" Tim asked.
=	Tim asked Mira what she had studied at university.

With question words

When a direct question begins with a question word, the word is repeated in the reported question. Question words include "who, " "what, " "when, " "where, " and so on.

Examples of changes in indirect speech with a direct question
	Sentence
	When did you learn to scuba dive?" Xavier asked Duncan.
=	Xavier asked Duncan when he had learned to scuba dive.
	"How old do you have to be to drive in Alberta?" Rebeca asked Yusuf.
=	Rebeca asked Yusuf how old you have to be to drive in Alberta.

With an auxiliary verb

When an auxiliary verb is used to begin the question, "if " or "whether " is used in the reported question. Auxiliary verbs for questions include the various forms of "be, " "have, " "will, " "would, " and so on.

Examples of other changes in indirect speech with an auxiliary verb
	Sentence
	"Are you an instructor or a student?" she asked.
=	She asked me whether I was an instructor or a student.
	"Will there be snow?" he wondered.
=	He wondered if there would be snow.

Updated September 11, 2023 by Digital & Web Operations, University Relations (web_services@athabascau.ca)