Punctuation

Terminal punctuation

Terminal punctuation refers to the punctuation marks used at the end of sentences. There are three types of terminal punctuation: the period, the question mark, and the exclamation mark.

The period

A period is required at the end of the following:

Declarative statements

Seth came to class late.
The absence of her symptoms relieved her doctor.
Fear is not only a very normal emotion but also an essential one.

Imperative sentences

Stand by the door.
Write your name at the top of the page.
Put a circle around the correct answer.

Indirect questions

She asked him if he knew when the next bus came.
One needs to ask oneself whether there is any point in raising an issue that is so unpopular.
Luisa wondered where Vasu got such innovative ideas.

Requests stated as polite questions

Would you please enclose a copy of your transcripts with your application.
Will you please forward the documents to the following address.
Could you have this typed by the end of the day.

Most abbreviations

Mrs.
M.B.A.
U.N.
viz.
etc.
e.g.
Jr.

After an ellipsis mark (three spaced periods) at the end of a sentence

And on it went, ad infinitum . . .
“Well, you might possibly, you know . . .”
He went off up the trail, off into the night, into the darkness, into . . .

Between whole numbers and decimals

.05
4.6
$5.95
$0.95
.95 or 95 cents but not .95 cents

The question mark

A question mark is required at the end of direct questions.

“Would you like to hear my opinion?” she asked.
I wonder if my parcel is here?

The exclamation mark

An exclamation mark denotes strong emotion and is the written equivalent of shouting. It is used after an interjection or emphatic exclamation

“Stop thief!” he cried.
Fire!
Ow!
Oh, no!
Watch out!

Note: The exclamation mark should be used sparingly.

Internal punctuation

While terminal punctuation is at the end of a sentence, internal punctuation is punctuation within a sentence.

The comma

A comma is used in the following ways:

To separate independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions

Examples of coordinating conjunctions

Coordinating conjunctions:	and	for	or	yet
	but	nor	so

Kenneth is experiencing some personal problems which are affecting his work, and he hopes counselling will help her.
Sam apologised, but Andy was irreconcilable.
The accused was under sixteen, so the court had no option but to refer him to the juvenile court.
It was ten years since he had left his hometown, yet he still missed when the cherry trees would bloom in early spring.

To separate two or more coordinate adjectives that modify the same noun

The confident, charming CEO took the stage and delivered an influential speech to her guests.
The dry, clay tennis court looked inviting.
We followed the narrow, winding road hoping it would lead to a village or farmhouse.

Tip! To determine whether adjectives are coordinate, try the following:

Join the two adjectives with and. If they make sense, they are coordinating adjectives.

Interchange the positions of the adjectives. If they can be interchanged, they are coordinating adjectives.

The dry, clay tennis court looked inviting.

The dry and clay tennis court looked inviting. (The adjectives can be joined with and, so they are coordinating adjectives.)
The dry, clay tennis court looked inviting. (The adjectives can be interchanged, so they are coordinating adjectives.)

The old Edwardian building on the corner is now a museum.

The old and Edwardian building on the corner is now a museum. (The adjectives old and Edwardian cannot be joined by and, so they are not coordinating adjectives.)
The Edwardian, old building on the corner is now a museum. (Old and Edwardian cannot be interchanged, so they are not coordinating adjectives.)

To separate words, phrases, and clauses in a series of three or more coordinate elements (parallel structures).

The basket contained oranges, apples, plums, and nectarines. (words)
Getting ready for her trip, Tracy packed a hoodie, put her toiletries in a plastic bag, and zipped up her bag. (phrases)
The duck waddled across the lane, it quacked at the chick that had lingered behind, and then it waddled back to the rest of the brood that was waiting virtuously on the other side. (clauses)

To separate coordinate elements that are sharply contrasted

Maria was simply young, not insensitive.
Tomas wasn’t stupid, just passive.

To set off all non-essential elements (make sure the sentence is complete without the element)

The calves, which were nestled into their stable, slept through their first night. (non-essential modifying clause)
Violet Chambers, sitting over there in the corner, was last month’s lottery winner. (non-essential modifying phrase)
Isaac, Silas’ son, is off to the Bahamas next month. (non-essential modifying appositive)
He wasn’t, however, too tired to play football that afternoon. (non-essential parenthetic element)

Note: Non-essential elements are set off with one comma if they come at the beginning or the end of the sentence.

However, he wasn’t too tired to play football that afternoon.
Even though she didn't have pets, Sharon was the only one qualified for the job in the veterinary lab.
The main disagreement is between the president and the vice president, sitting over there in the corner.

To separate any elements that precede an independent clause

When the train arrived in Toronto, most of the passengers got off.
It being late, Izabella and Jacob decided to stay the night there.
On hearing that the team had won the championships, the mayor posted a message to social media congratulating them.
Well, I suppose he’s got a point there.
For centuries, people thought mistletoe possessed magical qualities.

To set off items in dates, geographical names, addresses, and titles after names

She graduated university on June 3, 2020. (date)
Is that London, Ontario or London, England? (geographical names)
The British Prime Minister resides at 10 Downing Street, London. (address)
Ivan Galichenko, Ph.D., is the keynote speaker at the conference. (title after name)

To set off words in direct address

“It’s not what you say that bothers me, Jess, but the tone in which you say it.”
You might, Veronica, consider the fleece over the wool.
You, my colleagues, must join us in our endeavour to promote equity, diversity, and inclusion as company values.

To set off a question or comment tag

He’s from that show, isn’t he?
You haven’t had much time for yourself lately, have you?
You know better than I do, do you?

To set off he said/asked/replied, etc. when it interrupts direct speech

“The day,” she said, “isn’t going as smoothly as I had thought it would.”
“Would you ever,” he asked, “consider learning a new language?”
“I’d often wondered,” she murmured, “which career he'd settle on.”

To prevent misreading

For Matthieu, Ana would have done anything, except murder someone. (Problem—without the comma, Matthieu Ana could be read as one name, making the sentence a fragment.)
Below, a small brook gurgled its way towards the lake. (Problem—without the comma, below a small brook is read as one phrase, making the sentence a fragment.)
To him, being accepted by his peers mattered more than anything. (Problem—without the comma, To him being accepted by his peers is read as one phrase, making the sentence a fragment.)

The colon

In general, there must be a complete thought either before or after a colon.

Note that Canadian usage is lower case after a colon, while American is uppercase. The colon is used in the following ways:

To introduce a list after a complete sentence

The writers Sofia admired most were these: Isabel Allende, Kazuo Ishiguro, and Chinua Achebe. (Incorrect: The writers Victoria admired most were: Isabel Allende, Kazuo Ishiguro, and Chinua Achebe—here, a complete sentence does not precede the colon.)
On her list were the following: 2lbs. sugar, 5lbs. flour, 2 cans tomatoes, 1 loaf bread, and 1 quart milk.
Kiran’s emergency kit for winter driving contained only the essentials: a parka, candles, bandages, and flares.

To introduce an amplification or explanation of a preceding statement or word

There was only one solution to the problem: Janus would have to go.
One thing troubled him: where had the money come from?.
Revenge: Joe lived by the proverb that revenge is a dish best served cold.
There is one quality you need to succeed in this business: social justice.

To introduce a long and formal quotation after introductory phrases such as he said

Mark Antony rose before the crowd and cried:

Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The good is oft interred with their bones;
So let it be with Caesar. ( Julius Caesar, 3. 2. 73-77)

To separate the hour and minute figures used for time

My watch read 7:45 when I woke up this morning.
It is now 11:00 a.m.
Holmes and Watson caught the 1:15 train to Brighton.

The semicolon

A semicolon is used in the following ways:

To separate independent clauses not joined by and (provided a Colon is not appropriate), but, or, nor, so, or yet

Wallace was tall; Joshua, however, was short. (Note these two independent clauses are joined by a conjunctive adverb.)
The sky ripped open with a clap of thunder and a bolt of lightning; we ran into a doorway for cover.
Running is a foundational exercise; however, walking is just as health promoting and is more accessible.

To make for clearer reading of heavily-punctuated independent clauses that are joined by a coordinating conjunction

Audrey reminded Logan, Rocco, and Christiano about the meeting; and Ashley, Marisa, and Raquel reminded their co-workers.
If your reader has to stop every once in a while to puzzle over your meaning, they may not be able to follow the logic thread; reading your work out loud, focusing on sentence control, and having a friend proofread can help improve flow..

To separate internally punctuated coordinate elements that are joined by a coordinating conjunction

The grand tour usually included Shanghai, Beijing, and Guangzhou.
In our group at the time were Chan, a welder; Serrano, a corporate lawyer; and two auditors from the tax office.
The meeting was attended by all departments: Accounting, which sent two representatives, Max and Marisol; Personnel, which sent the manager, Everett, and a senior payroll clerk, Melinda; and Systems, which sent three computer programmers, Teresa, Avery, and Tyler.

The dash

In general, dashes emphasize. A dash is longer than a hyphen, and there are no spaces on either side. A dash is used in the following ways:

To indicate an abrupt shift or a break in thought

We also had a lengthy discussion about Celtic mysticism—but I won’t bore you with the details of that.
She raises chickens—her neighbours aren't fans..
At the age of fifteen—and she hasn't wavered since—she became vegan.

To set off an informal or emphatic parenthetical element

Omar said—I couldn’t believe this—that she wasn’t ambitious.
The researchers—how amazing is this?—figured out a key reason why Okinawans are centenarians.

To set off a parenthetic or an appositive element that is internally punctuated

I enjoyed reading Nordin Noir—The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Smilla's Sense of Snow, and the Wallander series—and it makes me want to travel to Sweden, Norway, and Denmark.
Her granddaughters—Surya and Nila—all resemble their beautiful mother.
The first experiments appeared to be a complete failure—media plates contaminated, funding lost, researchers devastated.

Parentheses

In general, parentheses de-emphasize. Parentheses are used in the following ways:

To enclose incidental, explanatory or parenthetical comments that are unessential to the main thought of the sentence

Someone once said (I think it was Oscar Wilde) that the only thing worse than being talked about was not being talked about at all.
The first article ( What is Statistics?) discussed some of the most basic features of data.
Enclosed is a cheque for fifty dollars ($50.00).
His view is that even The New Yorker seems (apart from the cartoons) completely irrelevant.
This would mean that temperatures would drop substantially (see Diagram 1).

To enclose details, brief definitions, and examples

Despite the prices (300,000 Euro for four people), Ristorante Pagliacci attracts people of even the most modest of incomes.
The poet, Joseph Howe (1804-1873), was born near Halifax.
Ever since 1915, when Einstein developed his theory of gravity, physicists have assumed that gravity waves (ripples in the fabric of space-time) are radiated by any mass that is accelerating.

To enclose letters or figures used to enumerate points in a text

The writing process includes nine key steps beginning with (1) understanding assignment instructions, (2) planning and pre-writing, (3) developing ideas, (4) outlining, (5) drafting, (6) revising, (7) editing, and (9) proofreading.

Punctuation with parentheses

Do not use any punctuation (comma, semicolon, colon, dash) before sentence elements enclosed in parentheses (singular—parenthesis).

Example
Researchers in Grenoble, France, reported observations of superconductivity at temperatures as high as 250 Kelvin (–23°C) in both bismuth-based and mercury-based materials.

Typical Error
Researchers in Grenoble, France, reported observations of superconductivity at temperatures as high as 250 Kelvin, (23°C) in both bismuth-based and mercury-based materials. (Note the unnecessary comma preceding the parenthesis.)

Example
Among other things, I weeded a border full of nettles (which made my eyes very sore when I foolishly rubbed them) and cut a finger almost to the bone with my shears.

Typical Error
Among other things, I weeded a border full of nettles, (which made my eyes very sore when I foolishly rubbed them), and cut a finger almost to the bone with my shears. (Note the item in parentheses is also set off with commas.)

Place the comma or period outside parenthetical material that is part of the sentence.

Example
When she became captain (1961), she became widely revered and respected.

Typical Error
When she became captain, (1961) she became widely revered and respected.

Example
Each paragraph or section of the paper is a major category in the outline and has a Roman numeral (I, II, III, and so on).

Typical Error
Each paragraph or section of the paper is a major category in the outline and has a Roman numeral (I, II, III, and so on.)

Place the end punctuation inside the parentheses when the parenthetical material is a separate sentence.

Example
After twenty-two months of teaching, Washoe (a chimpanzee) could use twenty-four words correctly in the appropriate circumstances. (She was only counted as knowing a word if three observers independently saw her use it correctly and without prompting.)
—From Language and Animal Signs by Claire and W. R. S. Russell

Typical Error
After twenty-two months of teaching, Washoe (a chimpanzee) could use twenty-four words correctly in the appropriate circumstances. (She was only counted as knowing a word if three observers independently saw her use it correctly and without prompting).

Brackets

Brackets are used in the following ways:

To enclose any editorial remark in material that is quoted

“When it [receiving an unfair penalty] happened, Serena Williams smashed her tennis racket in a display of frustration at the US Open's sexist refereeing.”
According to the article, “The [Olympian's] goal is to rehabilitate her knee, so that she can compete again in the future.”

With sic (thus it is) to indicate that the error or irregularity in the material appears in the original text

Ms. Mullen replied, “My sediments [sic] exactly.”
The article quoted Mr. Johnston as saying “It’s a can of squirming worms ready to burst at the scenes [sic].”
On that day, he began his diary entry with “For all intensive purposes [sic]”

Ellipsis marks

Ellipsis marks are used in the following ways:

To indicate any editorial omissions in quoted material

“In sharing my story, I hopt to...create space for ...other voices...to widen the pathway for who belongs and why” (Michelle Obama)

To indicate a full line of poetry that has been omitted

Break, break, break
. . .
And I would that my tongue could utter
The thoughts that arise in me.
—From Break, break, break by Alfred Tennyson

Quotation marks

Quotation marks are used in the following ways:

To enclose direct quotations

Example
It is in this sense that disability “acts as a mirror for society” in terms of “how society interprets disability”.

Typical Error

It is in this sense that disability "acts as a mirror for society” of “how society interprets disability”.

 

To enclose direct speech

“If we don’t guard our Grand Banks against overfishing,” said the Minister of Fisheries, “there won’t be any fish left for anyone anywhere.”
“What would you do if you received a pink slip?” she asked.
“I try not to think about it,” he replied.
“Look at that!” she shouted, pointing at the gargoyle leering at them from above the door.

To enclose the titles of short works (short stories, short poems, essays, articles, one-act plays, songs, speeches, and titles of parts of longer works)

There are several film versions of Shakespeare's Macbeth.
Although it is the fifth chapter of The Brothers Karamazov, “The Grand Inquisitor” is often studied as a piece in itself.

To enclose words from particular vocabularies, or words used in a special way

We all laughed when the newly-elected treasurer asked whether keeping the Board’s books was going to be a “taxing” job.
He discovered that the window frame was completely rotten and that there were cracks on a couple of panes, so he’s gone out “window shopping.”

Punctuation within quotation marks

Commas and periods are placed inside quotation marks.

He said, “I’d sell my soul for a pound of gold.”
“The time will come,” she said, looking angrily at him, “when you’ll regret having said that.”
“It’s time I went for my swim,” she said enthusiastically.

Note: British and some Canadian authors place the period or comma after the closing quotation mark.

Semicolons and colons that are not part of the quotation itself are placed outside quotation marks.

She asked me to bring “whatever you can spare” for her new puppy: blankets, treats, bones, and toys.

A dash, question mark, or exclamation point is placed inside quotation marks when it applies to the quotation.

“Have you seen Harry lately?” she asked.
“What shall we eat?” she asked. “What do you think—Ethiopian, fusion, or the diner?”
“Watch out!” he cried as he pulled her back from the curb.

A dash, question mark, or exclamation point is placed outside quotation marks when it applies to the whole statement.

Wasn’t Mandy Rice’s famous reply “You would, wouldn’t you”?
“You’ve got school tomorrow”—then she stopped herself and said, “It’s your decision; you are over eighteen.”
She crossed the finish line! She even beat her personal best!

A dash, question mark, or exclamation point is placed inside quotation marks and used only once when it applies to both the quotation and the statement.

What kind of question is “How come?”
They actually dared to shout “Coward!”
Does this sentence answer the question “Which student comes from Cambodia?”

The rules for punctuating clauses and phrases are applied when quoted material is interrupted by explanatory words such as he said, she said, etc.

“I have to say,” she said, lifting up her glass and smiling, “this tea is going to heal my sore throat.” (phrase; note the comma after she said applies only in dialogue, i.e., only in direct speech.)
“The price is too high,” he said. “Stu can find you a car like this for half the price?” (independent clause; note the period after he said.)
“Imelda will go far,” Gia observed: “she has brains, ambition, and tenacity.” (independent clause; note the colon after Gia observed.)

Single quotation marks

Single quotation marks are used to set off a quotation within a quotation

At the meeting last night, I heard James actually say, “As my pappy once told me ‘If you’re going to do a job, do it right.’ ”

Quoted material

Indentation is used to set off prose quotations of more than four lines.

Through his art, Paul unconsciously expresses his inner thoughts which Miriam alone can interpret for him, so that his work takes on newer dimensions:

He was conscious only when stimulated. A sketch finished, he always wanted to take it to Miriam. Then he was stimulated into knowledge of the work he had produced unconsciously. In contact with Miriam he gained insight: his vision went deeper (D. H. Lawrence, Sons and Lovers).

Note: Indentation is made from the left-hand margin. In typewritten work, indentation of quoted material is 10 character spaces from the left. Some style manuals require that lengthy quoted material be double-spaced. Many students are asked to use single space, but the rest of the prose should be double spaced.

Quotations of two or three lines of poetry may be either enclosed in quotation marks and run into the text or indented 10 character spaces from the left.

Vincent was struck by Prufock’s anguish at the thought of growing old, and recited the lines that he found most poignant: “I grow old . . . I grow old . . ./ I shall wear the bottoms of my trousers rolled.”
or
Vincent was struck by Prufock’s anguish at the thought of growing old, and recited the lines that he found most poignant:

I grow old . . . I grow old . . .
I shall wear the bottoms of my trousers old. (120-121,15)

Note: Slashes (/) are used to indicate line divisions for poetry that are enclosed in quotation marks and run into the text.

Indentation is used to set off poetry of more than three lines.

Vincent is struck by Prufock’s anguish at the thought of growing old, and recites the lines that he finds most poignant. He then begins to recite other passages. Olivia gazes out the window and recalls the lines that had once moved her:

Would it have been worth while
If one, settling a pillow or throwing off a shawl,
And turning to the window, should say:
“That is not it at all,
That is not what I meant, at all.” (106-110, p.15)